Internet Marketing

Internet marketing, also referred to as i-marketing, web marketing, online marketing, or eMarketing, is the marketing of products or services over the Internet. The Internet has brought many unique benefits to marketing, one of which being lower costs for the distribution of information and media to a global audience. The interactive nature of Internet marketing, both in terms of providing instant response and eliciting responses, is a unique quality of the medium. Internet marketing is sometimes considered to have a broader scope because it not only refers to digital media such as the Internet, e-mail, and wireless media; however, Internet marketing also includes management of digital customer data and electronic customer relationship management (ECRM) systems.
Internet marketing ties together creative and technical aspects of the Internet, including design, development, advertising, and sale. Internet marketing also refers to the placement of media along different stages of the customer engagement cycle through search engine marketing (SEM), search engine optimization (SEO), banner ads on specific websites, e-mail marketing, and Web 2.0 strategies. In 2008 The New York Times working with comScore published an initial estimate to quantify the user data collected by large Internet-based companies. Counting four types of interactions with company websites in addition to the hits from advertisements served from advertising networks, the authors found the potential for collecting data upward of 2,500 times on average per user per month.

Internet marketing and geo marketing places an emphasis on marketing that appeals to a specific behaviour or interest, rather than reaching out to a broadly-defined demographic. "On- and Off-line" marketers typically segment their markets according to age group, gender, geography, and other general factors. Marketers have the luxury of targeting by activity and geolocation. For example, a kayak company can post advertisements on kayaking and canoing websites with the full knowledge that the audience has a related interest.

Internet marketing differs from magazine advertisements, where the goal is to appeal to the projected demographic of the periodical. Because the advertiser has knowledge of the target audience—people who engage in certain activities (e.g., uploading pictures, contributing to blogs)— the company does not rely on the expectation that a certain group of people will be interested in its new product or service.

Internet marketing is relatively inexpensive when compared to the ratio of cost against the reach of the target audience. Companies can reach a wide audience for a small fraction of traditional advertising budgets. The nature of the medium allows consumers to research and purchase products and services at their own convenience. Therefore, businesses have the advantage of appealing to consumers in a medium that can bring results quickly. The strategy and overall effectiveness of marketing campaigns depend on business goals and cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis.

Internet marketers also have the advantage of measuring statistics easily and inexpensively. Nearly all aspects of an Internet marketing campaign can be traced, measured, and tested. The advertisers can use a variety of methods: pay per impression, pay per click, pay per play, or pay per action. Therefore, marketers can determine which messages or offerings are more appealing to the audience. The results of campaigns can be measured and tracked immediately because online marketing initiatives usually require users to click on an advertisement, visit a website, and perform a targeted action. Such measurement cannot be achieved through billboard advertising, where an individual will at best be interested, then decide to obtain more information at a later time.

Internet marketing as of 2007 is growing faster than other types of media. Because exposure, response, and overall efficiency of Internet media are easier to track than traditional off-line media—through the use of web analytics for instance - Internet marketing can offer a greater sense of accountability for advertisers. Marketers and their clients are becoming aware of the need to measure the collaborative effects of marketing (i.e., how the Internet affects in-store sales) rather than siloing each advertising medium. The effects of multichannel marketing can be difficult to determine, but are an important part of ascertaining the value of media campaigns.

Adsense

Adsense is a unique ad serving program that is run by Google that displays adverts on the webpage that surfers can click on, so as to visit the site of the advertiser. You must be wondering as to how money can be generated with Adsense? It is one of the oldest means of making money online. A Google search box is exhibited and this box allows the visitors to make a search in Google right from your site. Whenever a visitor clicks on the relevant search result, you are paid. This not only helps to perk up your visitor’s online experience but also helps understand their needs in an effective manner.

An advertisement application, Google Adsense provides a continuous stream of income with very little maintenance. Google charges a certain amount as fee from the advertisers for placing adverts. All you need to keep in mind is to have an attractive and fresh website with a huge flow of traffic. Your website should be a juxtaposition of good videos, links, and relevant content to draw lots of viewers. It should be tightly packed with related themes and updated regularly with new information from various sources. As a writer you should be able to read the mind of your visitors and provide them the best piece to increase your advertising effectiveness. Most people pursuing your website will click on these ads whenever they are looking for a certain product. The more they receive satisfying results, the further you will succeed in online advertising. Google Adsense is a vital feature that needs to be blended with your website. You should have a good combination of the background color and the ad, as this will increase the visitors and people too will think that the content is yours. The ad should be placed on top of each page and this will guarantee that the visitors will find them. Place the ad on the left hand side so that it is more visible to the viewers. Google allows 3 ads to be placed on each page and so you can use the advantage to the fullest. Instead of banners and pop ups for advertisements, companies can magnetize their websites with Adsense which pays out most when they are clicked upon. The important facet of Adsense is its reporting system to find out the money that you have earned. It is simple and easy to understand and calculate. It is in fact a revolutionary way of earning money online.

The reason behind the popularity of Google Adsense is that the program is incredibly accurate. Succeeding online with ads corresponds to the efforts put in. You need to come forward with quality and creative content for your web pages or blogs. Make sure that the ad link is placed within the first screen shot of your web page or else you will miss the potential clicks that may increase your sales.

Making money by publishing on the Internet is now becoming a global phenomenon is slowly being the first choice of advertising media used by companies to marketing their businesses. With the rise of this trend, the ball game of taking a pie of this revenue has gone into the hands of website owners who are now the potential publishers of these advertisements. Television’s, Radio, FM Stations are slowly having a tough time saving there market share with every new innovation that the internet industry is making through online media advertising. Its time that the advertising revenue be shared with the masses.

Online Money

Well there are many resources and articles on net which tell you how to earn money on net. But most of then don't work well. You can find whole web sites are made on the topics like "Make Money Online, Earn Money at Home Business and Work" OR "Earn Lots of Money Online with the Best Free Home Based Business Opportunity of the World". All these sites look very promising. But they are just earning money for the owners of these sites. They are using it for marketing purpose and making you people fool by wasting both your money and time.

If you has ever participated in any such program then you must be agree with me that earning money is not such a easy task. Does it really possible to earn money online? Yes, it is possible to make money online. But it need hard work form your end .don't think you can make good amount of money by just clicking some link or reading mails.
If you got a web site then you can earn some money by spreading your business or by ADS. It is better to use you mind for making money then to depends on some ready made solution. There is no Ways to Make Fast Easy Quick Money Online Today. Making Quick Money is every one's dream but this dream can't be full filled without hard work.

Many Internet companies pay you to surf the web, read emails, visit web sites or sign up for free offers on the internet. It is natural to get attracted towards such an offers. But after trying these most of people find earn money is not that easy as shown by these sites. If you earn some then there is no guaranty of payment. You may end up with just thinking about money, money, money.

What programs should I try? Well if you are located in US then there are many program which promises to give easy money. But as I don't belong to US I hasn't tested these .But speaking to International People it does not really work. If you are a Webmaster then you could try following:Google adsense: that's my Favorites. This is the only program that has work for me till now. But if this work for me then it is not necessary that it will work for you also. If you has informative site then you can really make money threw this program. It is much batter than Pay per click or pay per impression or pay per lead program. Try to sell some products threw you web site to earn money that is related to your web site. By choosing wrong program you may end up by spending more money then you are earning. There is no way to tell how much money you will earn.You will earn money according to you own work.

Form Filling Jobs

Online Form Filling Jobs is one of the easiest Home Jobs one can have today. The form filling jobs, as the name itself indicates you've to purely fill the online forms with specific details given to you. Today internet has become one of the vast markets for webmasters. Daily Millions of People visits websites and fill different types of forms like registration forms, job forms, etc

Today on internet there are Millions of websites and each are fighting the competition to get on the top. For example, if you are having a website on music cd's, and want to be on top of the search engine you need to beat the competitor sites. For this webmasters are paying money like anything to get on the top. They just want their websites on top, & they pay you anything.

Form filling site providers undertake all these jobs from webmasters. Daily they get a minimum of 1500+ requests from webmasters & atleast 500+ orders from webmasters for their websites. Form filling sites really need someone to do their form filling Jobs. They give you only the form filling part & nothing more or else. A form filling is as simple as you fill a form for opening a email account on yahoo, Google or any other site.

For each website, our optimizing departments have to work on more than 64 sub projects & Form Filling is one among them. In form filling part we have to fill atleast 5000 to 10,000 forms for each website, however it defers from site to site and webmasters requirements. Some webmasters ask for atleast 50,000+ form filling and that to in a single month. Like wise there are thousands of websites. To complete all these tasks, a heavy manpower is required. Form Filling is not the only thing, we need to complete their Job work in time. The Job work is very simple, you will be provided with all the forms more than 25000+, form matters & form filling software. You can complete any number of forms in a single day, and using form filling software you can do the same in seconds.
You can earn between Rs.50 to Rs.100 for each data entry form you fill. Companies have many categories of forms to fill. Based on the category, the rate will vary. On an average, you can earn Rs.75 for each form you fill. No need Extra qualification is needed. Just basic Internet Browsing knowledge is enough to do this job.

There are no hard and fast rules regarding the work. It depends on the number of hours you work. You can work at your convenient timings. But it is good at least you work 1 hour daily to earn a decent income.

Affiliate Marketing

Affiliate Marketing is an Internet-based marketing practice in which a business rewards one or more affiliates for each visitor or customer brought about by the affiliate's marketing efforts.The Affiliate Marketing industry has four core players at its heart: the Merchant, the Network, the Publisher and the Consumer. The market has grown sufficiently in complexity to warrant a secondary tier of players, including Affiliate Management Agencies, Super-Affiliates and Specialized Third Parties vendors.

Affiliate marketing overlaps with other Internet marketing methods to some degree, because affiliates often use regular advertising methods. Those methods include organic search engine optimization, paid search engine marketing, e-mail marketing, and in some sense display advertising. On the other hand, affiliates sometimes use less orthodox techniques, such as publishing reviews of products or services offered by a partner.Affiliate marketing—using one website to drive traffic to another—is a form of online marketing, which is frequently overlooked by advertisers. While search engines, e-mail, and website syndication capture much of the attention of online retailers, affiliate marketing carries a much lower profile. Still, affiliates continue to play a significant role in e-retailers' marketing strategies.

Affiliate marketing currently lacks industry standards for training and certification. There are some training courses and seminars that result in certifications; however, the acceptance of such certifications is mostly due to the reputation of the individual or company issuing the certification. Affiliate marketing is not commonly taught in universities, and only a few college instructors work with Internet marketers to introduce the subject to students majoring in marketing.

Why Affiliate Marketing? The advertising techniques can be as many as you can think of promoting your business is nothing but using your resources to the utmost. But then the question is, "What are the reasons that Affiliate Marketing is such a hit?" This is so because it is a “Pay per Performance” technique. You get pamphlets and hoardings printed, but you never know if you will have any walkins or not. But in case of Affiliate Marketing, you pay only after you get a query or a customer.

Earn from Surveys

“Discover How to Make as Much Money as You Want, Just By Having an Internet Connection, Some Spare Time, and an Opinion!”Your Opinion is Worth Gold To Big Business…and They’re Ready to Pay You Right Now for Your Time! This Little-Known Way to Make Easy Money on the Internet is - Helping Thousands of People Just Like You Achieve Their Dreams!
Incredible as it may seem, companies are spending $41 billion annually to do market research. They need the opinions of regular consumers like you to decide if a product is worth their time and money.

And these companies realize now that telemarketing doesn’t work—they can’t get your opinions for free. So they are prepared to pay you for them—and pay well. Businesses have uncovered the potential of the internet to get opinions from consumers all over the world. Especially now, in the age of “Do Not Call Lists,” companies need folks like you to volunteer their opinions in a convenient and easy way. Imagine having enough money to afford the things you’ve always wanted for you and your family. Enjoy the little extras you always denied yourself, pay off credit card bills, start college funds for your kids, and take that dream vacation you never thought you could pay for! Doing surveys for pay requires nothing more than an internet connection and your opinion. If you can sign your name and click a mouse, you can make extra cash right away.

All you have to do is open your inbox and click on a survey link. It takes just a few minutes to answer basic questions about your shopping preferences, and then, with a click of the mouse, there’s money in your account. Anywhere from $10-$40 for just 15-20 minutes of your time, while you lounge in your comfortable clothes and listen to music, or even watch TV.

If this sounds too good to be true, believe me, I felt the same way at first. I felt guilty about raking in cash without working long, hard hours for it. Then I remembered the catty office politics and the long commute every day that I left behind, and I began to change my thinking to enjoy all the freedom and empowerment I was now experiencing at home.

There are lots of companies willing to shell out cash for your opinions, and will do so on your timetable, not theirs. And the numbers of businesses doing research like that are growing daily. But to get these companies to send you surveys, you need someone that has access to the marketing firms that handle the marketing research for the larger businesses that pay consumers for surveys.

That’s where various survey sites comes in. Make Money Taking Surveys has already invested the time and money to find out which marketing firms will pay for surveys taken on-line.That means that no matter where you live, these companies want research from your area: United States, Canada, the UK, Australia, etc.

Home Based Jobs

Are there real work at home jobs? Yes there are some, but, they are not nearly as plentiful as you would think considering the amount of interest there is in working from home. They are also difficult to find. Job seekers who are interested in home employment need to spend a good deal of time searching for legitimate opportunities, as well as a significant amount of time weeding through scams. Many people who work from home started out working in an office, but, were able to arrange with their employer to work some or all of time at home. I have an acquaintance who relocated to Washington, DC. Her employer decided to enable her to work from home, rather than losing a valuable employee. I have another acquaintance who works part-time from the office and part-time from home in order to accommodate her children's school schedules. My sister-in-law schedules home nursing care visits from home. In those cases, employees, who had already proven themselves to be valuable to their employer, were able to negotiate flexible work schedules.

There are companies that hire employees directly to work from their homes. Check the sites that list work at home jobs. Some these positions are those where you cover a territory, for an insurance company or consumer products, for example, and spend some time on the road and some time in your home office. There are also customer service, recruiting, sales, scheduling, technical, writing, and telemarketing jobs available. In many cases, the jobs are part-time, commission-based, or pay a lump sum for a completed project.

In other cases, you can work as a home based agent where you are an employee of the company who works from a home office, providing customer service to client companies. Virtual assistants provide administrative, secretarial, and clerical support, as well as creative and/or technical services for clients.

Work at home transcriptionists are usually independent contractors who transcribe and edit recorded reports onto their home computer. Online tutors work for internet based companies that offer help, within a variety of subject areas, to students of all ages.

If you're looking to make a little extra money, paid surveys are a possibility, but do be careful about avoiding scams. Full-time jobs that provide health insurance, a pension, vacation, and other benefits while you work full-time from home, especially if you don't have experience, are few and far between. Finding them online is a little like looking for a needle in a haystack.

Flexibility is one key to successfully working from home. If you are willing to consider freelance or contract employment or willing to combine a couple of part-time positions, you'll have a greater chance of success in finding opportunities that are legitimate. It's also critically important to take the time to search for positions and to thoroughly research those that sound viable.

BPO

Business process outsourcing (BPO) is a form of outsourcing that involves the contracting of the operations and responsibilities of a specific business functions (or processes) to a third-party service provider. Originally, this was associated with manufacturing firms, such as Coca Cola that outsourced large segments of its supply chain. In the contemporary context, it is primarily used to refer to the outsourcing of services.

BPO is typically categorized into back office outsourcing - which includes internal business functions such as human resources or finance and accounting, and front office outsourcing - which includes customer-related services such as contact center services.

BPO that is contracted outside a company's country is called offshore outsourcing. BPO that is contracted to a company's neighboring (or nearby) country is called nearshore outsourcing.Given the proximity of BPO to the information technology industry, it is also categorized as an information technology enabled service or ITES. Knowledge process outsourcing(KPO) and legal process outsourcing (LPO) are some of the sub-segments of business process outsourcing industry.

One of the most important advantages of BPO is the way in which it helps to increase a company’s flexibility. However, several sources have different ways in which they perceive organizational flexibility. Therefore business process outsourcing enhances the flexibility of an organization in different ways.

Most services provided by BPO vendors are offered on a fee-for-service basis. This helps a company becoming more flexible by transforming fixed into variable costs. A variable cost structure helps a company responding to changes in required capacity and does not require a company to invest in assets, thereby making the company more flexible. Outsourcing may provide a firm with increased flexibility in its resource management and may reduce response times to major environmental changes.

Another way in which BPO contributes to a company’s flexibility is that a company is able to focus on its core competencies, without being burdened by the demands of bureaucratic restraints. Key employees are herewith released from performing non-core or administrative processes and can invest more time and energy in building the firm’s core businesses. The key lies in knowing which of the main value drivers to focus on – customer intimacy, product leadership, or operational excellence. Focusing more on one of these drivers may help a company create a competitive edge. A third way in which BPO increases organizational flexibility is by increasing the speed of business processes. Using techniques such as linear programming can reduce cycle time and inventory levels, which can increase efficiency and cut costs. Supply chain management with the effective use of supply chain partners and business process outsourcing increases the speed of several business processes, such as the throughput in the case of a manufacturing company. Finally, flexibility is seen as a stage in the organizational life cycle. BPO helped to transform Nortel from a bureaucratic organization into a very agile competitor. A company can gain the advantage of maintaining ambitious growth goals while sidestepping standard business bottlenecks. BPO therefore allows firms to retain their entrepreneurial speed and agility, which they would otherwise sacrifice in order to become efficient as they expanded. It avoids a premature internal transition from its informal entrepreneurial phase to a more bureaucratic mode of operation. Typically, a company is given the freedom to grow at a rapid, steady pace rather than being constrained by large capital expenditures for people or equipment that may take years to amortize, may become outdated or turn out to be a poor match for the company over time.Although the above-mentioned arguments favor the view that BPO increases the flexibility of organizations, management needs to be careful with the implementation of it as there are a few stumbling blocks, which could counter these advantages. Among problems, which arise in practice are: A failure to meet service levels, unclear contractual issues, changing requirements and unforeseen charges, and a dependence on the BPO which reduces flexibility. Consequently, these challenges need to be considered before a company decides to engage in business process outsourcing.

A further issue is that in many cases there is little that differentiates the BPO providers other than size. They often provide similar services, have similar geographic footprints, leverage similar technology stacks, and have similar Quality Improvement approaches.

Web Hosting

A web hosting service is a type of Internet hosting service that allows individuals and organizations to provide their own website accessible via the World Wide Web. Web hosts are companies that provide space on a server they own or lease for use by their clients as well as providing Internet connectivity, typically in a data center. Web hosts can also provide data center space and connectivity to the Internet for servers they do not own to be located in their data center, called colocation.

The scope of hosting services varies widely. The most basic is web page and small-scale file hosting, where files can be uploaded via File Transfer Protocol (FTP) or a Web interface. The files are usually delivered to the Web "as is" or with little processing. Many Internet service providers (ISPs) offer this service free to their subscribers. People can also obtain Web page hosting from other, alternative service providers. Personal web site hosting is typically free, advertisement-sponsored, or cheap. Business web site hosting often has a higher expense.Single page hosting is generally sufficient only for personal web pages. A complex site calls for a more comprehensive package that provides database support and application development platforms (e.g. PHP, Java, Ruby on Rails, ColdFusion, and ASP.NET). These facilities allow the customers to write or install scripts for applications like forums and content management. For e-commerce, SSL is also highly recommended.

The host may also provide an interface or control panel for managing the Web server and installing scripts as well as other services like e-mail. Some hosts specialize in certain software or services (e.g. e-commerce). They are commonly used by larger companies to outsource network infrastructure to a hosting company.

Web hosting is often provided as part of a general Internet access plan; there are many free and paid providers offering these services. A customer needs to evaluate the requirements of the application to choose what kind of hosting to use. Such considerations include database server software, scripting software, and operating system. Most hosting providers provide Linux-based web hosting which offers a wide range of different software. A typical configuration for a Linux server is the LAMP platform: Linux, Apache, MySQL, and PHP/Perl/Python. The webhosting client may want to have other services, such as email for their business domain, databases or multi-media services for streaming media. A customer may also choose Windows as the hosting platform. The customer still can choose from PHP, Perl, and Python but may also use ASP .Net or Classic ASP.Web hosting packages often include a Web Content Management System, so the end-user doesn't have to worry about the more technical aspects. These Web Content Management systems are great for the average user, but for those who want more control over their website design, this feature may not be adequate.

Get Paid for Viewing Ads

There are some websites which pay you for clicking ads on their websites. Your account is credited with money for each click instantly. When you reach a certain limit (which is variable as per the websites), this amount will transfer to your online money bank called Paypal and Alertpay account, you will need to make one. It’s free of cost.

You have to compile a list of all such websites which will pay you for clicking their ads. This will increase your daily income and all this clicking procedure doesn't take more than 2-3 hours a day. If you work as just in your free time, you will earn at least 600 rupees daily which means Rs 18,000 a month depending upon the job chosen. To increase your income, you have to refer your friends as your downlines. When they work, you get as much as they earn, so this multiplies your income.

For eg. if you refer 3 friends, then your total monthly income will be : 18,000 (Your Income) + 18,000 X 3 (Commission from your 3 friends/referrals) = Rs 72,000. So now register for Paypal account. You will need Paypal account at time of registration with other websites. While registering in paypal they will ask for your Credit Card Information if you do not want to give Click on cancel and still your account get created at that time as it is not compulsory but surely u can add it later when u get paid by different websites and have a good amount in your paypal account.

Once you will get registered, go back to home page of the job site and register with all the websites mentioned in "list of websites" page (there may be over 100+ websites). While registration, many websites will ask your Paypal Identity. You need to mention your Paypal email address or the email address you used while registration with Paypal.

Once you are done with registrations with all these websites, open all of them and login. Every website will have a button to open the advertisements page, it could be named like "Browse Ads", "Surf Ads", "Start Earning", "Earn Money", "View Ads" etc. Just locate this button and click on it to go to the advertisements page.

When you are on advertisements page, you will see several links. Each link will fetch you money, instantly. Click on one link at a time and let it open. Clicking on the link will open the page in new window. A countdown will start on the top of the page, wait for it to get over. Once the countdown is over, a "$" or tick will appear, which means that your account is credited.Do not open any other advertisement from the same website until the countdown of the previous advertisement is over. That can cancel your credit for that click. You cannot open two advertisements from the same website at a time, but you can always open advertisements from different websites at a time. You can open several windows and open the website all along, and login into them and go to advertisements page. Now click on one advertisement from each website. By the time you click advertisement from the last website, the countdown of the advertisement from first website will be over and you will be able to earn money faster than ever.

Every PTC website has a page where it shows how many advertisements have you clicked and how much balance is there in your account. You can only transfer this money balance once it reaches the minimum limit assigned by the owner of that website. The button to go to this page is normally named as "Members", "Your Stats", "My Stats" etc. This page will show you how much money you have earned. Once you reach the minimum limit, you can transfer that money to your Paypal account.Once the money reaches your Paypal account, you can transfer it conveniently to your Bank, or call for a cheque or credit the amount to your credit card.

United States of America

The United States of America (commonly referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to its east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories, or insular areas, in the Caribbean and Pacific.

The United States has operated under a two-party system for most of its history. For elective offices at all levels, state-administered primary elections choose the major party nominees for subsequent general elections. Since the general election of 1856, the major parties have been the Democratic Party, founded in 1824, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854. Since the Civil War, only one third-party presidential candidate—former president Theodore Roosevelt, running as a Progressive in 1912—has won as much as 20% of the popular vote.

Within American political culture, the Republican Party is considered center-right or "conservative" and the Democratic Party is considered center-left or "liberal". The states of the Northeast and West Coast and some of the Great Lakes states, known as "blue states", are relatively liberal. The "red states" of the South and much of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains are relatively conservative.

The winner of the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama, is the 44th U.S. president and the first African American to hold the office. All previous presidents were men of solely European descent. The 2008 elections also saw the Democratic Party strengthen its control of both the House and the Senate. In the 111th United States Congress, the Senate comprises 57 Democrats, two independents who caucus with the Democrats, and 40 Republicans (one seat remains in dispute); the House comprises 256 Democrats and 178 Republicans (one seat is vacant).

The United States is a federal union of fifty states. The original thirteen states were the successors of the thirteen colonies that rebelled against British rule. Most of the rest have been carved from territory obtained through war or purchase by the U.S. government. One set of exceptions comprises Vermont, Texas, and Hawaii: each was an independent republic before joining the union. Another set of exceptions comprises those states created out of the territory of the original thirteen. Early in the country's history, three states were created in this manner: Kentucky from Virginia; Tennessee from North Carolina; and Maine from Massachusetts. During the American Civil War, West Virginia broke away from Virginia. The most recent state—Hawaii—achieved statehood on August 21, 1959. The states do not have the right to secede from the union.The states compose the vast bulk of the U.S. land mass; the two other areas considered integral parts of the country are the District of Columbia, the federal district where the capital, Washington, is located; and Palmyra Atoll, an uninhabited but incorporated territory in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also possesses five major overseas territories: Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands in the Caribbean; and American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands in the Pacific. Those born in the territories (except for American Samoa) possess U.S. citizenship.

The IPL - Indian Premier League

The Indian Premier League (also known as the "DLF Indian Premier League" and often abbreviated as IPL), is a Twenty20 cricket competition created by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) and chaired by the Chairman & Commissioner IPL, BCCI Vice President Lalit Modi. The first season of the Indian Premier League commenced on 18 April 2008, and ended on 1 June 2008 with the victory of the Rajasthan Royals against Chennai Super Kings in the final at the DY Patil Stadium, Navi Mumbai.

As the second season of the IPL coincided with multi-phase 2009 Indian general elections, the Indian Government refused to commit security by Indian paramilitary forces. As a result, the BCCI decided to host the second season of the league outside India. All 59 matches of the second season, abbreviated as IPL 2, are taking place in South Africa. BCCI blamed the attitude of the UPA-led governments at the centre and in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh for the decision

The IPL is predicted to bring the BCCI income of approximately US$1 billion, over a period of five to ten years. All of these revenues are directed to a central pool, 40% of which will go to IPL itself, 54% to franchisees and 6% as prize money. The money will be distributed in these proportions until 2017, after which the share of IPL will be 50%, franchisees 45% and prize money 5%. The IPL signed up Kingfisher Airlines as the official umpire partner for the series in a Rs. 106 crore deal. This deal sees the Kingfisher Airlines brand on all umpires' uniforms and also on the giant screens during third umpire decisions.

It was announced that a consortium consisting of India's Sony Entertainment Television network and Singapore-based World Sport Group secured the global broadcasting rights of the Indian Premier League. The record deal has a duration of ten years at a cost of US $1.026 billion. As part of the deal, the consortium will pay the BCCI US $918 million for the television broadcast rights and US $108 million for the promotion of the tournament. Broadcast Live on Setanta. This deal was challenged in the Bombay High Court by IPL, and got the ruling on its side. After losing the battle in court, Sony Entertainment Television signed a new contract with BCCI with Sony Entertainment Television paying a staggering RS 8700 crores for 10 years. One of the reason for payment of this huge amount is seen as the money required to subsidize IPL's move to South Africa which will be substantially more than the previous IPL. IPL had agreed to subsidize the difference in operating cost between India and South Africa as it decided to move to the African nation after the security concerns raised because of its coincidence with India's general elections.

20% of these proceeds would go to IPL, 8% as prize money and 72% would be distributed to the franchisees. The money would be distributed in these proportions until 2012, after which the IPL would go public and list its shares. In India, the IPL has become one of the most popular events of the year. Around the world, reception has varied. In Pakistan the reception was described by Pakistani cricinfo editor Osman Samiuddin as 'massive', suggesting that it attracted even non-regular cricket followers and that the popularity of the Kolkata Knight Riders was great. GEO Super telecasted the matches and also included a popular show called Inside IPL. A similar positive reaction was seen in Sri Lanka, with interest in the Mumbai Indians being large due to the presence of cricket hero Sanath Jayasuriya. Bangladesh has also positively reacted despite only one Bangladeshi player being involved. The Knight Riders were the most popular team. These subcontinental countries were also helped in that the time-slot of the matches fitted in with prime time in these nations.

South Africa has seen moderate viewership of the IPL, however, many were unable to relate to any of the teams, although a large number simply supported Mumbai Indians because of the presence of Shaun Pollock. The timing worked in South Africa but the IPL did not overcome the power of Premier League football or rugby. In England, although the country's governing body did not allow its players to take part, the IPL was very popular with the Asian Population .

Rugby league

Rugby league is a full-contact team sport, played with an oval ball by two teams of thirteen players on a rectangular grass field. Rugby league is one of the two codes of rugby football, the other being rugby union. Rugby league was established in 1895, when twenty-two members of the Rugby Football Union in England revolted in protest about compensation for working class players.

The objective in rugby league is to score more points through tries, goals and field goals (also known as drop goals) than the opposition within the 80 minutes of play. The try is the most common form of scoring, and a team will usually attempt to score one by running and kicking the ball further upfield, or passing from player-to-player in order to manoeuvre around the opposition's defence. A goal is worth two points and may be gained from a conversion or a penalty. A field goal is only worth one point, and is gained by kicking the ball between the uprights in open play. If after two halves of play, each consisting of forty minutes, the two teams are drawing, a draw may be declared, or the game may enter extra time under the golden point rule, depending on the relevant competition's format.

Rugby league is most prominent in Australia, England, New Zealand, France and Papua New Guinea (where it is considered the national sport). It is also played professionally in France, Wales and the United States. New Zealand are the current World Cup holders. The game is played at a semi-professional and amateur level in several other countries, such as Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Ireland, Scotland, Russia, Lebanon, Germany, Japan, United States, Malta and Jamaica.

Players on field are divided into forwards and backs. Each position has a designated number, 1 to 13. Numbers 14 to 17 are given to players starting on the bench, who will come into the game as substitutes for other players who are injured, in need of a rest, or for tactical reasons. If you are new to the game or watching for the first time you may find these designated numbers confusing as a player with number 23 on their back may enter the field of play from the substitutes bench rather than the numbers 14 to 17. You may also notice a number 11 playing centre rather than the afore mentioned number 3 or 4 (centres designated number). This is due to the introduction of squad numbers on the inception of Super League in the summer of 1996. These squad numbers were introduced for every super league player in order for every teams squad members to be easily identifiable rather than the position in which they play and therefore numbers between 20 and 30 can be readily seen on the field of play. Typically the bench comprises three forward substitutes and a hooker/halves substitute. Each side is allowed 12 substitutions per game.

Rugby league is played in more than 30 countries, though it is most commonly played in the United Kingdom (predominantly northern England), Australia and New Zealand. Australia, where it is a winter sport, is the strongest of the three. Rugby league is most popular in England, Australia and New Zealand and it is recognised as the national sport in Papua New Guinea. It is also played professionally in France, and Wales There are also plans to have a professional competition running in the United States by 2010.

A National Rugby League game at Suncorp Stadium in Brisbane, Australia during the 2004 NRL season. The 2006 NRL Grand Final between Brisbane Broncos and Melbourne Storm at Olympic Stadium, Sydney. Until New Zealand's victory in 2008, Australia had won every world cup since 1975. Until 25 November 2005, they had also not lost an international tournament or series of any kind for twenty-seven years until they lost to New Zealand in the final of the 2005 Tri-Nations Series at Elland Road in Leeds.

In Australia, it is the dominant winter sport in Queensland and New South Wales, as well as being popular in the Australian Capital Territory and having a minor foothold in the Northern Territory. The other four states have low participication and knowledge with many struggling to differentiate between rugby union and rugby league.

Traffic Signals

Traffic lights, also known as traffic signals, stop lights, traffic lamps, stop-and-go lights, robots or semaphore, are signaling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings, and other locations to control competing flows of traffic.

Traffic lights have been installed in most cities around the world to control the flow of traffic. They assign the right of way to road users by the use of lights in standard colors (Red - Amber - Green), using a universal color code (and a precise sequence, for those who are color blind). They are used at busy intersections to more evenly apportion delay to the various users.

The most common traffic lights consist of a set of three lights: red, yellow (officially amber), and green. When illuminated, the red light indicates for vehicles facing the light to stop; the amber indicates caution, either because lights are about to turn green or because lights are about to turn red; and the green light to proceed, if it is safe to do so.

There are many variations in the use and legislation of traffic lights, depending on the customs of a country and the special needs of a particular intersection. There may, for example, be special lights for pedestrians, bicycles, buses, trams, etc; light sequences may differ; and there may be special rules, or sets of lights, for traffic turning in a particular direction. Complex intersections may use any combination of these.
Traffic light technology is constantly evolving with the aims of improving reliability, visibility, and efficiency of traffic flow.

The universal standard is for the red to be above the green, and if there is also an amber it is placed in the middle. If the three-set lights are mounted horizontally, the red will typically be to the left of the green. The standards apply whether the country drives on the left or the right, but the placement of the mountings on the road would be mirror images of the other.

Each country has differing road rules, including how traffic lights are to be interpreted. For example, in some countries, a flashing yellow light means that a motorist may proceed with care if the road is clear, giving way to pedestrians and to other road vehicles that may have priority (essentially the same as arriving at a non-signalized intersection and not facing a stop sign). A flashing red may be treated as a regular stop sign.

Traffic lights for pedestrians normally have two main lights: a red light that means 'stop' and a green light that means 'go' (or, more correctly, 'proceed with caution'). There is usually a flashing phase (red in the US and Australia, green in Europe) that means 'complete your crossing'. In most locales in North America, the colors used are a red-orange ("Portland orange") for "stop/wait" and a bluish-white ("lunar") for "go." While the "walk" signal is generally a walking human figure, North American pedestrian signals usually show an upraised hand for "stop," while most other countries display a standing human figure. Some older American signals display the verbal commands "Walk" (lunar white or green) and "Don't Walk" or "Wait" (red-orange).

Rockets

A rocket or rocket vehicle is a missile, aircraft or other vehicle which obtains thrust by the reaction of the rocket to the ejection of fast moving fluid exhaust from a rocket engine. Chemical rockets create their exhaust by the combustion of rocket propellant. The action of the exhaust against the inside of combustion chambers and expansion nozzles accelerates the gas to extremely high speed and exerts a large reactive thrust on the rocket (since every action has an equal and opposite reaction).

Rockets are used for fireworks and weaponry, ejection seats and launch vehicles for artificial satellites, human spaceflight and exploration of other planets. While inefficient for low speed use, they are, compared to other propulsion systems, very lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large accelerations and of attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency. Chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily-released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction, and use minimize risks.

Rockets at minimum have propellant, a place to put propellant (such as a propellant tank), one or more rocket engines and nozzle, directional stabilization device(s) (such as fins, attitude jets or engine gimbals for thrust vectoring, gyroscopes) and a structure (typically monocoque) to hold these components together. Rockets intended for high speed atmospheric use also have an aerodynamic fairing such as a nose cone. As well as these components, rockets can have any number of other components, such as wings (rocketplanes), wheels (rocket cars), even, in a sense, a person (rocket belt). Vehicles frequently possess navigation systems and guidance systems which typically use satellite navigation and inertial navigation systems.

Rocket engines employ the principle of jet propulsion. The rocket engines powering rockets come in a great variety of different types, a comprehensive list can be found in rocket engine. Most current rockets are chemically powered rockets (usually internal combustion engines, but some employ a decomposing monopropellant) that emit a hot exhaust gas. A rocket engine can use gas propellants, solid propellant, liquid propellant, or a hybrid mixture of both solid and liquid. Some rockets use heat or pressure that is supplied from a source other than the chemical reaction of propellant(s), such as steam rockets, solar thermal rockets, nuclear thermal rocket engines or simple pressurized rockets such as water rocket or cold gas thrusters. With combustive propellants a chemical reaction is initiated between the fuel and the oxidizer in the combustion chamber, and the resultant hot gases accelerate out of a rocket engine nozzle (or nozzles) at the rearward-facing end of the rocket. The acceleration of these gases through the engine exerts force ("thrust") on the combustion chamber and nozzle, propelling the vehicle (in accordance with Newton's Third Law).

Rockets or other similar reaction devices carrying their own propellant must be used when there is no other substance (land, water, or air) or force (gravity, magnetism, light) that a vehicle may usefully employ for propulsion, such as in space. In these circumstances, it is necessary to carry all the propellant to be used.

Global Warming

Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-twentieth century and its projected continuation. Global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the last century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that anthropogenic greenhouse gases are responsible for most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the twentieth century and that natural phenomena such as solar variation and volcanoes probably had a small warming effect from pre-industrial times to 1950 and a small cooling effect afterward. These basic conclusions have been endorsed by more than 40 scientific societies and academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries.

Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that global surface temperature will probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the twenty-first century. The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing climate sensitivity, and the use of differing estimates of future greenhouse gas emissions. Some other uncertainties include how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most studies focus on the period up to 2100. However, warming is expected to continue beyond 2100 even if emissions stop, because of the large heat capacity of the oceans and the long lifetime of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Increasing global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical deserts. The continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice is expected, with the Arctic region being particularly affected. Other likely effects include shrinkage of the Amazon rainforest and Boreal forests, increases in the intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions and changes in agricultural yields.

Political and public debate continues regarding the appropriate response to global warming. The available options are mitigation to reduce further emissions; adaptation to reduce the damage caused by warming; and, more speculatively, geoengineering to reverse global warming. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

The main tools for projecting future climate changes are computer models of the climate. These models are based on physical principles including fluid dynamics and radiative transfer. Although they attempt to include as many processes as possible, simplifications of the actual climate system are inevitable because of the constraints of available computer power and limitations in knowledge of the climate system. All modern climate models include an atmospheric model that is coupled to an ocean model and models for ice cover on land and sea. Some models also include treatments of chemical and biological processes. These models project a warmer climate due to increasing levels of greenhouse gases. Although much of the variation in model outcomes depends on the greenhouse gas emissions used as inputs, the temperature effect of a specific greenhouse gas concentration (climate sensitivity) varies depending on the model used. The representation of clouds is one of the main sources of uncertainty in present-generation models.

It usually is impossible to connect specific weather events to global warming. Instead, global warming is expected to cause changes in the overall distribution and intensity of events, such as changes to the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation. Broader effects are expected to include glacial retreat, Arctic shrinkage, and worldwide sea level rise. Other effects may include changes in crop yields, addition of new trade routes, species extinctions, and changes in the range of disease vectors.

Pollution

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances, or energy, such as noise, heat, or light energy. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. The Blacksmith Institute issues annually a list of the world's worst polluted places. In the 2007 issues the ten top nominees are located in Azerbaijan, China, India, Peru, Russia, Ukraine and Zambia.

Air pollution comes from both natural and manmade sources. Though globally manmade pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution equation.

Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China, United States, Russia, Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides.

Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium--found in rechargeable batteries, and lead--found in lead paint, aviation fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of press reports culminating in a book called Fateful Harvest unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD.

Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often involve water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or automobiles. Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved. Some sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur. In the case of noise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle, producing about ninety percent of all unwanted noise worldwide.

Cars

An automobile or motor car is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on roads, to have seating for one to eight people, to typically have four wheels, and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods. However, the term automobile is far from precise, because there are many types of vehicles that do similar tasks.

As of 2002, there were 590 million passenger cars worldwide (roughly one car per eleven people. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007; they burn over 260 billion gallons of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China and India.

Diesel-engined cars have long been popular in Europe with the first models being introduced as early as 1922 by Peugeot and the first production car, Mercedes-Benz 260 D in 1936 by Mercedes-Benz. The main benefit of diesel engines is a 50% fuel burn efficiency compared with 27% in the best gasoline engines. A down-side of the Diesel engine is that better filters are required to reduce the presence in the exhaust gases of fine soot particulates called diesel particulate matter. Manufacturers are now starting to fit diesel particulate filters to remove the soot. Many diesel-powered cars can run with little or no modifications on 100% biodiesel and combinations of other organic oils.

Most automobiles in use today are propelled by gasoline (also known as petrol) or diesel internal combustion engines, which are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming. Increasing costs of oil-based fuels, tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for automobiles. Efforts to improve or replace existing technologies include the development of hybrid vehicles, and electric and hydrogen vehicles which do not release pollution into the air.

The costs of automobile usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs, maintenance, fuel, depreciation, parking fees, tire replacement, taxes and insurance, are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits - perceived and real - of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence and convenience.

Similarly the costs to society of encompassing automobile use, which may include those of: maintaining roads, land use, pollution, public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life, can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that automobile use generates. The societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of automobile production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far reaching implications for the nature of societies.

Cell Phones

A mobile phone or mobile (also called cellphone and handphone as well as cell phone, cellular phone, cell, wireless phone, cellular telephone, mobile telephone or cell telephone) is a long-range, electronic device used for mobile voice or data communication over a network of specialized base stations known as cell sites. In addition to the standard voice function of a mobile phone, telephone, current mobile phones may support many additional services, and accessories, such as SMS for text messaging, email, packet switching for access to the Internet, gaming, Bluetooth, infrared, camera with video recorder and MMS for sending and receiving photos and video, MP3 player, radio and GPS. Most current mobile phones connect to a cellular network of base stations (cell sites), which is in turn interconnected to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) (the exception is satellite phones).

The most commonly used data application on mobile phones is SMS text messaging, with 74% of all mobile phone users as active users (over 2.4 billion out of 3.3 billion total subscribers at the end of 2007). SMS text messaging was worth over 100 billion dollars in annual revenues in 2007 and the worldwide average of messaging use is 2.6 SMS sent per day per person across the whole mobile phone subscriber base. (source Informa 2007). The first SMS text message was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK, while the first person-to-person SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993.

In Q3/2008, Nokia was the world's largest manufacturer of mobile phones, with a global device market share of 39.4%, followed by Samsung (17.3%), Sony Ericsson (8.6%), Motorola (8.5%) and LG Electronics (7.7%). These manufacturers accounted for over 80% of all mobile phones sold at that time.

The mobile phone became a mass media channel in 1998 when the first ringing tones were sold to mobile phones by Radiolinja in Finland. Soon other media content appeared such as news, videogames, jokes, horoscopes, TV content and advertising. In 2006 the total value of mobile phone paid media content exceeded internet paid media content and was worth 31 Billion dollars (source Informa 2007). The value of music on phones was worth 9.3 Billion dollars in 2007 and gaming was worth over 5 billion dollars in 2007 (source Netsize Guide 2008).

The mobile phone is often called the Fourth Screen (if counting cinema, TV and PC screens as the first three) or Third Screen (counting only TV and PC screens). It is also called the Seventh of the Mass Media (with Print, Recordings, Cinema, Radio, TV and Internet the first six). Most early content for mobile tended to be copies of legacy media, such as the banner advertisement or the TV news highlight video clip. Recently unique content for mobile has been emerging, from the ringing tones and ringback tones in music to "mobisodes," video content that has been produced exclusively for mobile phones.

Chennai

Chennai, formerly known as Madras is the fourth largest city in India by area and the capital city of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal, Chennai had a population of more than 5 million within its municipal corporation. The urban agglomeration of Chennai has an estimated population over 8 million, making it one of the largest urban agglomerations in India.

The city was established in the 17th century by the British, who developed it into a major urban centre and naval base. By the 20th century, it had become an important administrative centre, as the capital of the Madras Presidency.

Chennai's economy has a broad industrial base in the automobile, technology, hardware manufacturing, and healthcare industries. The city is India's second largest exporter of software, information technology (IT) and information-technology-enabled services (ITES). A major chunk of India's automobile manufacturing industry is based in and around the city. Chennai Zone contributes 39 per cent of the State’s GDP. Chennai accounts for 60 per cent of the country’s automotive exports and is sometimes referred to as "the Detroit of India".

Chennai hosts a large cultural event, the annual Madras Music Season, which includes performances by hundreds of artists. The city has a vibrant theatre scene and is an important centre for the Bharatanatyam, a classical dance form. The Tamil film industry, known as Kollywood, a second largest film industry in India, is based in the city; the soundtracks of the movies dominate its music scene.

Chennai is the Musical and Cultural Capital of India. The city is known for its classical dance shows and Hindu temples. Every December, Chennai holds a five-week long Music Season celebrating the 1927 opening of the Madras Music Academy. It features performances (kutcheries) of traditional Carnatic music by hundreds of artists in and around the city. An arts festival called the Chennai Sangamam, which showcases various arts of Tamil Nadu is held in January every year. Chennai is also known for Bharatanatyam, a classical dance form that originated in Tamil Nadu. An important cultural centre for Bharatanatyam is Kalakshetra, on the beach in the south of the city. Chennai is also home to some of the best choirs in India, who during the Christmas season stage various carol performances across the city in Tamil and English. The Madras Musical Association (MMA) is one of the oldest and prestigious choirs in India and has staged performances across the world.

Scanners

A device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate the information into a form the computer can use. A scanner works by digitizing an image -- dividing it into a grid of boxes and representing each box with either a zero or a one, depending on whether the box is filled in. (For color and gray scaling, the same principle applies, but each box is then represented by up to 24 bits.) The resulting matrix of bits, called a bit map, can then be stored in a file, displayed on a screen, and manipulated by programs.

Optical scanners do not distinguish text from illustrations; they represent all images as bit maps. Therefore, you cannot directly edit text that has been scanned. To edit text read by an optical scanner, you need an optical character recognition (OCR) system to translate the image into ASCII characters. Most optical scanners sold today come with OCR packages.

Scanners typically read red-green-blue color (RGB) data from the array. This data is then processed with some proprietary algorithm to correct for different exposure conditions, and sent to the computer via the device's input/output interface (usually SCSI or bidirectional parallel port in machines pre-dating the USB standard). Color depth varies depending on the scanning array characteristics, but is usually at least 24 bits. High quality models have 48 bits or more color depth. The other qualifying parameter for a scanner is its resolution, measured in pixels per inch (ppi), sometimes more accurately referred to as Samples per inch (spi). Instead of using the scanner's true optical resolution, the only meaningful parameter, manufacturers like to refer to the interpolated resolution, which is much higher thanks to software interpolation. As of 2004, a good flatbed scanner has an optical resolution of 1600–3200 ppi, high-end flatbed scanners can scan up to 5400 ppi, and a good drum scanner has an optical resolution of 8000–14,000 ppi. Manufacturers often claim interpolated resolutions as high as 19,200 ppi; but such numbers carry little meaningful value, because the number of possible interpolated pixels is unlimited.

The size of the file created increases with the square of the resolution; doubling the resolution quadruples the file size. A resolution must be chosen that is within the capabilities of the equipment, preserves sufficient detail, and does not produce a file of excessive size. The file size can be reduced for a given resolution by using "lossy" compression methods such as JPEG, at some cost in quality. If the best possible quality is required lossless compression should be used; reduced-quality files of smaller size can be produced from such an image when required (e.g., image designed to be printed on a full page, and a much smaller file to be displayed as part of a fast-loading web page).

The third important parameter for a scanner is its density range. A high density range means that the scanner is able to reproduce shadow details and brightness details in one scan. By combining full-color imagery with 3D models, modern hand-held scanners are able to completely reproduce objects electronically. The addition of 3D color printers enables accurate miniaturization of these objects, with applications across many industries and professions.

White Tigers

White tigers are very rarely found in the wild. In about 100 years only 12 white tigers have been seen in the wild in India. They are almost extinct and most of the ones living are in captivity, mostly in zoos. This specific tiger is neither an albino nor a separate subspecies of the tiger. They are beautifully white colored and have black stripes. It has blue eyes and a pink nose. It also has white colored fur. The white tiger is born to a Bengal tiger that has the gene needed for white coloring.

The striking white coat is caused by a double recessive allele in the genetic code, and only turns up naturally about once in every 10,000 births. Amazingly, the Bengal tiger is the only subspecies in which it seems to happen. As beautiful as it may look, life as a white tiger can't be easy when your life depends on being able to hide from and/or sneak up on things.

Tigers usually stay in an area from about 10 to 30 square miles where there is enough prey, cover/shelter and water to support them. Territory actually depends on the amount of prey that is available. The more concentrated the prey the smaller an area a tiger needs to survive. White tigers in the wild live to be about 10 to 15 years, tigers in zoos usually live between 16 and 20 years.Tigers do not hunt in social groups like lions. They are generally solitary animals. In the wild, tigers will eat pig, cattle and deer. They can eat as much as 40 pounds of meat at one time! After such a big meal a tiger will not eat again for several days. White Tigers have 30 large teeth ranging from 2.5 to 3 inches. Tigers are generally solitary animals, except when caring for their young. Tigers keep their young with them for 2 or 3 years until the young tigers can fend for themselves.

The White Tiger is a good swimmer, but a very poor climber. They may be slow runners, but they are stealthy enough to catch any prey in their sights. Because they are solitary animals, they hunt mostly at night. The other four sub-species of tiger are Siberian, South China, Indochinese, and Sumataran. There are only approximately 5,000 to 7,400 tigers left in the wild. At the beginning of this century it is estimated that there were 100,000 wild tigers, today the number is less than 8,000. Simply put, tigers are disappearing in the wild. The main threats to tigers are poaching, habitat loss and population fragmentation.

Indian Rivers

The Indian River Systems can be divided into four categories – the Himalayan, the rivers traversing the Deccan Plateau, the Coastal and those in the inland drainage basin. The Himalayan Rivers are perennial as they are fed by melting glaciers every summer. During the monsoon, these rivers assume alarming proportions. Swollen with rainwater, they often inundate villages and towns in their path. The Gangetic basin is the largest river system in India, draining almost a quarter of the country.

One of India’s most sacred rivers, the Ganga (or the Ganges) originates in the Himalayas at Gaumukh (13,858ft). Legend has it that the Ganga originated from the mythical Mountain Meru believed to be located at the core of the universe, and also considered to be the abode of gods.From here the Ganga drops into Shiva’s matted locks (Shiva is the Destroyer of the Universe in the Hindu Holy Trinity of Creator-Preserver-Destroyer), that seem to cushion its fall before it finally lands on earth.That the river is of such spiritual significance for the Hindus is borne out by the fact that a dip in the Ganga is believed to absolve one of all sins. A few drops of Ganga jal (water) on a dying Hindu’s lips are said to earn the latter a permanent abode in heaven. Furthermore, Hindus believe that if the ashes of the dead are immersed in the Ganga, their souls break free from the cycle of birth and rebirth and attain nirvana. The three most revered towns situated on the banks of the Ganga are Haridwar, Allahabad and the eternal Varanasi.

The Yamuna, a tributary of the Ganga, is another important river. Rising from Yamunotri in the Himalayas, it merges with the Ganga in Allahabad. The Saraswati, a mythical river known to have existed a few thousand years ago, is believed to follow its invisible underground course to unite with the Ganga and the Yamuna at Sangam (meeting point), or Prayag in Allahabad.Rivers like the Chambal, Betwa and Sone flow northwards from the Vindhya Mountain Range and drain into the Ganga and the Yamuna. The basins of the Brahmaputra and the Indus cover about one-tenth of India’s land area. Smaller rivers like the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej are tributaries of the Indus, a river that flows from Pakistan into North India.

Saraswati is celebrated both as river diety and as the Goddess of speech and learning. The meaning of the word Saraswati is ‘full of waters’ or ‘full of lakes’. The source of the river is considered to be in Plakasha Prasravana in the Himalayan Mountains and the place where the river disappears is called Vinasana. The water of the river Saraswati is inspiring. As a river Goddess, she connected with fertility and procreation and particularly with purification.

Narmada is the largest of the major west flowing rivers born in the central highlands. It is described as the best among the rivers. It is said that the river was issued by the body of Rudra. Narmada originated from the Amarkantak hill and flows at a distance of 1300 km and ultimately meets the Bay of Cambay near Bharuch. Narmada is capable of purifying all creatures and even immovabbles.

Java Islands

Java (Indonesian: Jawa) is an island of Indonesia and the site of its capital city, Jakarta. Once the centre of powerful Hindu kingdoms, Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies, Java now plays a dominant role in the economic and political life of Indonesia. Home to a population of 130 million in 2006, it is the most populous island in the world, ahead of Honshū, the main island of Japan. Java is also one of the most densely populated regions on Earth.

Formed mostly as the result of volcanic events, Java is the 13th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in Indonesia. A chain of volcanic mountains forms an east-west spine along the island. It has three main languages, and most residents are bilingual, with Indonesian as their second language. While the majority of Javanese are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs and cultures.

Despite its large population and in contrast to the other larger islands of Indonesia, Java is comparatively homogeneous in ethnic composition. Only two ethnic groups are native to the island — the Javanese and Sundanese. A third group is the Madurese, who inhabit the island of Madura off the north east coast of Java, and have immigrated to East Java in large numbers since the 18th century. The Javanese comprise about two-thirds of the island's population, while the Sundanese and Madurese account for 20% and 10% respectively.

Four major cultural areas exist on the island: the kejawen or the Javanese heartland, the north coast of the pasisir region, the Sunda lands of West Java, and the eastern salient, also known as Blambangan. Madura makes up a fifth area having close cultural ties with coastal Java.

Java was the site of many influential kingdoms in the Southeast Asian region, and as a result, many literary works have been written by Javanese authors. These include Ken Arok and Ken Dedes, the story of the orphan who usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient Javanese kingdom; and translations of Ramayana and Mahabarata. Pramoedya Ananta Toer is a famous contemporary Indonesian author, who has written many stories based on his own experiences of having grown up in Java, and takes many elements from Javanese folklore and historical legends.

More than 90 percent of Javanese are Muslims, on a broad continuum between abangan (more nominal or syncretic) and santri (more orthodox). Small Hindu enclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a large Hindu population along the eastern coast nearest Bali, especially around the town of Banyuwangi. There are also Christian communities, mostly in the larger cities, though some rural areas of south-central Java are strongly Roman Catholic. Buddhist communities also exist in the major cities, primarily among the Chinese Indonesian. The Indonesian constitution recognises six official religions.

Indian Cinemas

Cinema of India constitutes of films produced across India, including the cinematic culture of Mumbai along with the cinematic traditions of provinces such as Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. Indian films came to be followed throughout Southeast Asia and the Middle East - where modest dressing and subdued sexuality of these films was found to be acceptable to the sensibilities of the audience belonging to these regions. As cinema as a medium gained popularity in the country as many as 1,000 films in various languages of India were produced annually. Expatriates in countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States continued to give rise to international audiences for Hindi-language films, some of which—according to the Encyclopedia Britannica (2009) entry on Bollywood—continued to carry "formulaic story lines, expertly choreographed fight scenes, spectacular song-and-dance routines, emotion-charged melodrama, and larger-than-life heroes." This is contrasted by the 'Parallel Cinema' movement, prominent in Bengali cinema and other regional industries, known for its serious content, realism and naturalism.

In the 21st century, Indian cinema, along with the American and Chinese film industries, became a global enterprise. Enhanced technology paved the way for upgradation from established cinematic norms of delivering product, radically altering the manner in which content reached the target audience. Indian cinema found markets in over 90 countries where films from India are screened. The country also participated in international film festivals. Indian filmmakers such as Shekhar Kapur, Mira Nair, Deepa Mehta etc. found success overseas. The Indian government extended film delegations to foreign countries such as the United States of America and Japan while the country's Film Producers Guild sent similar missions through Europe.

India is the world's largest producer of films, producing close to a thousand films annually. About 300 of the total films produced are in Hindi while the remaining are in other languages. However, Hindi films account for about half of the total revenue generated by cinema in India. The provision of 100% foreign direct investment has made the Indian film market attractive for foreign enterprises such as 20th Century Fox, Sony Pictures, and AOL Time Warner. Prominent Indian enterprises such as Zee, UTV and Adlabs also participated in producing and distributing films. Tax incentives to multiplexes have aided the multiplex boom in India. By 2003 as many as 30 film production companies had been listed in the National Stock Exchange of India, making the commercial presence of the medium felt.

The Indian diaspora constitutes of millions of Indians overseas for which films are made available both through mediums such as DVDs and by screening of films in their country of residence wherever commercially feasible. These earnings, accounting for some 12% of the revenue generated by a mainstream film, contribute substantially to the overall revenue of Indian cinema, the net worth of which was found to be 1.3 billion US Dollars in 2000.Facilities for film production in the country included Ramoji Film City, which, according to Shanti Kumar 'claims to be the largest' film production center in the world. Music in Indian cinema is another substantial revenue generator, with the music rights alone accounting for 4-5% of the net revenues generated by a film in India.

The Hindi film industry—also known as Bollywood—is the largest and most popular branch of Indian cinema. The term "Bollywood" is sometimes incorrectly applied to Indian cinema as a whole, especially outside South Asia and the South Asian diaspora. Bollywood initially explored issues of caste and culture in films such as Achut Kanya (1936) and Sujata (1959). International visibility came to the industry with Raj Kapoor's Awara. Bollywood grew during the 1990s with the release of as many as 215 films in 1991. With Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, Bollywood registered its commercial presence in the Western world.

In 1995 the Indian economy began showing sustainable annual growth, and Bollywood, as a commercial enterprise, grew at a growth rate of 15% annually. With growth in commercial appeal the earnings of known Bollywood stars such as Shah Rukh Khan reached 30 million rupees per film by the year 2000.And Rajini Kanth indian film superstar reached 30 million per film by 1990s. Female stars such as Kajol and Madhuri Dixit, too, earned as much as 12.5 million rupees for a film. Many actors signed contracts for simultaneous work in 3-4 films. Institutions such as the Industrial Development Bank of India also came forward to finance Bollywood films. A number of magazines such as Stardust, Filmfare, Cineblitz etc. became popular.